Transcript Document 7157887

Slide 1
A Topical Approach to
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Sixteen:
Schools, Achievement,
and Work
John W. Santrock
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Schools
• Constructivist and direct instruction
approaches
– Constructivist approach
• Emphasizes child’s active construction of knowledge
and understanding; reflection and critical thinking
• Teacher provides support for students exploring
their world and developing knowledge
• Today: opportunities and collaboration stressed
• Criticisms: not enough discipline, too relativistic and
vague
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Schools
• Constructivist and direct instruction
approaches
– Direct instruction approach
• Structured, teacher-centered/controlled
• Criticisms: creates passive learners, few critical thinking
challenges
– Many recommend: effective teachers use direct
and constructivist instruction together
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Schools
• Accountability
– State-mandated tests have taken on a more
powerful role — No Child Left Behind
– Critics argue that they lead to
• Single score being used as sole predictor
• Teaching to test; use of memorization
• Tests don’t measure important skills like creativity and
social skills
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Schools
• Schools and developmental status
– Early childhood education
• The norm in many states, private and publicly funded
• Many ways young children are educated
– The child-centered kindergarten
• Emphasizes the whole child
– Physical, cognitive, socioemotional development
– Needs, interests, and learning style
– Emphasizes learning process
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Schools
• Schools and developmental status
– Montessori approach
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Originally developed for MR children, then for poor
Teacher is facilitator
Children encouraged to be early decision makers
Fosters independence and cognitive development skills
De-emphasizes verbal interactions
Criticisms vary
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Schools
• Developmentally Appropriate and
Inappropriate Education
– Developmentally appropriate practice
• focuses on age/individual (uniqueness) appropriateness
• Recently: more focus on sociocultural factors
– Developmentally inappropriate practice
• direct instruction, extensive use of drill/practice, relies on
paper-and-pencil activities given to large groups
• Children show slower development
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Schools
• Education for disadvantaged children
– 1965 – Project Head Start
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U.S. programs vary for low-income children
Proven positive and quality experiences
Not all U.S. programs created equal in quality
Most successful: well-designed and well-implemented
– Controversies in early childhood education
• Include both academic and constructivist approaches
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Schools
• Elementary education
– Change from “home-child’’ to “school-child”
– New roles and obligations
– Too often, early schooling has more negative
feedback; lowers child’s self-esteem
– Teachers often pressured to cover curriculum;
• Tight scheduling; may harm children
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Schools
• Educating adolescents
– Transition to Middle or Junior High School
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Independent from parent monitoring; more choices
Physical and bodily image changes, cognitive changes
Impersonal structure, multiple teachers, stressful times
“Top dog phenomenon”
– Benefits
• More opportunities, friends, challenges, feel grown up
• More subject choices, intellectual work challenges
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Schools
• Effective schools for young adolescents
– Fears: junior highs being “watered-down” high
schools, mimicked curriculum, schedules
• There are biological, psychological differences
– Carnegie report:
• U.S. middle schools: massive, impersonal, and lacking
• Recommended complete overhaul and changes: more
flexible curriculum, more fitness-health programs
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Schools
• Effective schools for young adolescents
– High School
• Concerns about education and students
– Needs pathway to student identity achievement
– Graduate with inadequate skills
– Enter college needing remediation classes
– Student drop out rates decreasing today
» Ethnic and racial differences
» Gender differences
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Schools
• Effective schools for young adolescents
– Effective programs that discourage high school
dropping out include
• Bill and Melinda Gates foundation funding
• “I Have A Dream” program
– Projects adopt entire public grade level or cohorts in
housing projects; gives college tuition to high school
grads
• Reading, tutoring, counseling, mentoring programs
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Schools
• College and Adult Education
– Transition to College
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Replays the top-dog phenomenon
Many of same benefits found in high school
Movement to a larger, more impersonal school
Interact with peers of more diverse backgrounds
Increased focus on achievement and assessment
More opportunities to explore lifestyles and values
Many experience more stress and depression
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Schools
• College and Adult Education
– Adult education includes
• Literacy training, community development
• University credit programs, on-the-job training
• Continuing professional education
– Women — the majority of adult learners
– Occurs in many forms, offered by many sources
• Individual reasons for attending adult ed/college vary
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Schools
• Educating children with disabilities
– Approximately 13.5% (ages 3 to 21) in United
States receive special education or related
services
– Learning disability:
• Difficulty learning/understanding/doing math
• Gender differences: “Referral bias”?
– Boys are 3x more diagnosed as girls
• Diagnosis difficult; guidelines vary among states
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Schools
• Educating children with disabilities
– Dyslexia:
• Severe impairment in ability to read and spell
• Brain scans used; difficulty integrating information
– Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
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Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity; onset in childhood
Definitive causes unknown; in DSM-IV
Medication is common treatment; other treatments vary
Stricter behavioral school rules “illuminate” these
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Schools
• Educating children with disabilities
– Autism spectrum disorders
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Autistic disorder: severe; onset in first three years
Asperger syndrome: mild impairments: obsessiveness
No proof of being caused by family socialization
Affects about 1 million children today
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Schools
• Educating children with disabilities
– Public Law 94-142, Education for All Handicapped
Children Act; renamed as IDEA in 2004
• Individualized education plan (IEP) — written program
tailored to child with disability
• Least restrictive environment (LRE) — child with
disability educated in setting similar to where other
children educated
• Inclusion — educating child with special education
needs in regular classroom
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Schools
• Socioeconomicstatus and ethnicity
– Low-income, ethnic minority children face more
difficulties in school
• Schools in poor areas
– Underfunded, low test scores and graduation rates
– Young inexperienced teachers, largely segregated
– Rote learning promoted
• More minorities put in remedial/special education
classes, suspended from school
• Asians and Whites more likely put in advanced classes
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Schools
• SES and ethnicity
– Improving relationships among ethnically diverse
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Turn class into jigsaw classroom
Positive personal contact with diverse other students
Engage in perspective taking; reduce bias
View school and community as a team
– Comprehensive school plan, assessment strategy,
and staff development plan
– Mental health/support team
– Parents’ program
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Achievement
• Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
– Extrinsic
• Activity is means to an end
• Often motivated by rewards and punishment
– Intrinsic
• Activity is an end in itself
• Self-determination and personal choices
• Personal responsibility for behavior encouraged
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Achievement
• Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
– Developmental shifts
• Intrinsic motivation increases with age for most
– Decreases in early high school
• Greatest extrinsic increase and intrinsic decrease
between sixth and seventh grade
– Blamed on impersonalization experiences, increased
evaluations (standardized tests) and competition
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Achievement
• Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
– Conclusions
• Create stimulating cognitive environments
• Promote more self-responsibility for student learning
• Some rewards can undermine learning; rewards most
effective with high interest
• Rewards convey mastery information
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Achievement
• Mastery motivation and mindset
– Mastery Motivation
• Mastery orientation — task-oriented; concerned with
learning strategies
• Helpless orientation — one seems trapped by difficulty
and attributes one’s difficulty to a lack of ability
• Performance orientation — achievement outcomes;
winning matters
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Achievement
• Mastery motivation and mindset
– Mindset
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Cognitive view of oneself
Fixed mindset: “carved in stone”
Growth mindset: belief in change
Promotes optimistic or pessimistic outlook
Shaping begins due to interactions with others
– Growth mindset shows higher achievement results
– Self-Efficacy
• Belief that one can master a situation/have good results
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Achievement
• Goal-Setting, planning, and self-monitoring
– Self-efficacy and achievement improve when
individuals set goals that are
• Specific
• Proximal (short-term)
• Challenging
– Can set both long and short-term goals
– Expectations linked to outcomes/efforts
• Setting highest standards that can be achieved is best
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Achievement
• Goal-Setting, planning, and self-monitoring
– Purpose
• Accomplish something meaningful to one’s self;
contribute something to the world beyond one’s self
• Teachers, parents convey importance of goals; should
discuss where goals lead to (long-term picture)
• Negative influences
– Some TV/media, violent models of aggression/video
games, unrealistic views of the world, passive
learning, stereotyping, and other distractions
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Achievement
• Goal-Setting, planning, and self-monitoring
– Purpose
• Technology concerns for children, emerging adults
– Computer and Internet
– Online social environments (MySpace, Facebook)
– Proper use, restrictions can be beneficial
• Internet and aging adults
– Fastest growing population of users
– Search for information, use for fast communication
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 29
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Achievement
• Ethnicity and culture
– Aging and culture
• Good life based on health, security, kinship network
• Collectivistic cultures (e.g. China, Japan) have high
respect for older persons than individualistic cultures like
United States
– Possess valuable knowledge, control key family
resources, remain “useful,” aging role changes have
greater capacity, integrated extended family, role
continuity throughout life span
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 30
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Achievement
• Ethnicity and culture
– Socioeconomic status (SES)
• Grouping by occupational, educational, and economic
similarities
• SES differences are proxy for material, human, and
social capital within and beyond the family
– SES variations in neighborhoods
• Affect children’s adjustment: disadvantages/advantages
• Crime and isolation linked to low self-esteem, distress
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 31
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Achievement
• Ethnicity and culture
– SES differences
• Lower-SES parents
– More concerns with child conformity to society, home
of strong parental authority, corporal punishment use
and more directive than interactive communication
• Higher-SES parents
– Concerned with delayed gratification, discipline rules
discussed with children, less physical punishment,
more interactive conversation
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 32
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Achievement
• Ethnicity and culture
– Poverty
• Challenges of poverty have impact on adult lives
• 2006: 17% of children under age 18 in poverty
• U.S. poverty level demarcated by family structure and
ethnic lines; minorities overrepresented
• Psychological impact
– Powerless, less financial resources, alternatives are
restricted; environmental inequities is damaging
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 33
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Achievement
• Ethnicity and culture
– Families and poverty
• Links between economic well-being, parental behavior,
and social adjustment
• Feminization of poverty
• Programs that have made an positive impact
– Minnesota Family Investment Program (MFIP)
– New Hope Program
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 34
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Achievement
• Ethnicity and culture
– SES, poverty, and aging
• Older adults in poverty linked to increased physical and
mental health problems
• Poverty among older minorities 2 to 3 times higher
• Retirement forces reduced income and spending
– Expenses, cost-of-living increases
– Social security for those over 65 years
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 35
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Achievement
• Ethnicity
– United States is more ethnically diverse than ever
before
• Immigration
– High rates impact on ethnic population growth
– Special stressors for immigrants (language, changed
SES, support system separation, struggle to adapt
but preserve ethnic identity)
– Acculturation: parents and children often at different
stages of the process
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Achievement
• Ethnicity and SES
– Research unclear due to methods used
– Ethnicity and families
• Ethnic group variations in size, structure, composition,
kinship network, levels of education and income
• Highest risks of poverty
– Single or uneducated parents
– All parents face childrearing challenges
– Greatest harm to children
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 37
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Achievement
• Ethnicity and culture
– Differences and diversity
• Historical, economic, and social experiences produce
differences between minority groups
• Stereotyping of perceived deficits are harmful
• Great diversity between groups seen as “one”
– Latinos: experiences of Cubans and Puerto Ricans
– Asians: Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Filipino, Thai
– Ethnicity and aging
• Face problems of racism, ageism, and sexism for women
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 38
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Career Developmental Changes
– Young children
• Idealistic fantasies about what to be when they grow up
– High school
• Serious career decisions as different options explored
– College
• Choose major/specialization leading to work in a field
– Early adulthood
• Start full-time occupation
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 39
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Career Development
– Match personality type to career
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Realistic: prefer solitude, being outdoors
Investigative: interested in ideas, intellectualist
Artistic: creative, innovative ways for self-expression
Social: helping orientation, desire to be with people
Enterprising: dominating, good at persuasion
Conventional: detail-oriented, prefer highly structured
situations
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 40
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Career Development
– Important aspect of choosing a career — match
career to one’s values
– Monitoring the Occupational Outlook
– Labor force participation of women increasing
– Work in Adolescence
• 90% receive high school diplomas
• 75% work part-time and attend school
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Work in Adolescence
– U.S. high school students
• 75% work part-time and attend school
• Most work 16-20 hours per week
• Most work in service jobs
– Work more than in other developed countries; less
than developing countries
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Work
– Emerging adulthood
• Many variations of work patterns exist in merging roles of
student and worker
• Co-op programs, some dropouts, most graduate
• Transition strongly influenced by level of education
• Special concern: many attending community colleges
but drop out or don’t finish
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 43
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Work
– Adulthood
• The work landscape
• National survey: 55% less productive due to stress; 52%
considered or made a career change because of stress
in the workplace
• Unemployment
• Dual-career couples
– Males assuming more home responsibilities
– Women assuming more ‘breadwinner’ roles
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Work
– Middle Adulthood
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Midlife time of evaluation, assessment, and reflection
Recognizing limitations in career progress
Deciding whether to change jobs or careers
Rebalance family and work
Planning for retirement
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 45
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Work
– Late Adulthood
• Percentage of older adults who work part-time steadily
increased since 1960s
– Good health
– Strong psychological commitment to work
– Distaste for retirement
– Cognitive ability is best predictor
• Many participate in unpaid work
• Age affects many aspects of work
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 46
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Retirement
– Option to retire late twentieth-century
phenomenon in United States
– Today’s workers will spend 10 to 15% of their lives
in retirement
– Flexibility is key factor in adjustment
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 47
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Careers, Work, and Retirement
• Retirement
– Many return to work after retirement — about 7
million in 2006
– Adjustment to retirement varies according to life
changes and circumstances
– Retirement planning includes more than
successful financial planning
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 48
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The End
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 49