Transcript Document

Cognition (Unit 7A and B)
Review:
1. Memory
2. Problem Solving
3. Language
Cognitive Psychology -language,
problem solving, decision making,
reasoning, memory
Metacognition=Knowledge about
the principles and workings of
cognition
Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory
Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory
Attention=the filter
Without filter, life would be chaos!
(working in groups in a large class)
Selective attention = selection of
input-lets us notice stimuli-can
not focus on 2 conversations at
once
Encoding-Levels of Processing:
• How we process results in different memory
codes
Level-of-processing theory-Deeper
processing (Semantic=by meaning-why
definitions in own words is best): results
longer lasting memory codes
They proposed 3 levels of processing when
dealing with verbal information
• Encoding levels:
– Structural = shallow(how word looks)
– Phonemic = intermediate (how it sounds-involves
saying the word)
– Semantic
Things that Enrich Encoding and ImproveMemory
• Elaboration/Elaborative Rehersal (using
examples)= linking a info. to other information at the
time of encoding Self-Referent Encoding=Personal
examples best
– Thinking of examples-apply classical conditioning
to your own fear of spiders
• Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to
represent words to be remembered
• Dual-coding theory-memory enhanced by using
semantic (meaning) & visual codes since either
can lead to recall
Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory
• Information-processing theories/Threebox Model
– Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
• Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage
Sensory Memory
Brief preservation of information in original
sensory form (sight, sound)
• Echoic-hearing
• Iconic-seeing –lasts ¼ second
– George Sperling (1960)
• Classic experiment on visual sensory
store-showed it to be brief
Short Term Memory (STM)- Working Memory
1. Limited capacity – “magical number 7
plus or minus 2” of unfamiliar items
(George Miller) We can increase this STM
through:
– Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for
storage as a single unit
(95-468-05-211 vs.954-680-5211)
Shopping list-use 7 categories
2. Limited duration - 20 seconds
without rehearsal
Rehearsal (repetition-leads to longer
STM and LTM) and Mnemonic Devices
(visual & verbal memory tricks that aid
in encoding info. for easier recall)
Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity and
duration
Two Views=Don’t remember at times what is
stored due to
1.retrieving difficulties or
2. not permanent
• Permanent storage?
– Flashbulb Memories-unusually vivid,
detailed recall of momentous eventsdistortions of these memories increase
over time
Long-Term Memory
Encoding in LTM-is according to
meaning, usually not verbatim (word
for word)
Serial Position Effect-remember items
at beginning (primacy effect) and
end of a list/event (recency effect)items in middle poorly remembered
Recency effect -items still in STM
Primacy effect -we have a chance to
rehearse
Maintaining/Organizing LTM
Rote Rehearsal/repetition useful for holding
info. in LTM
Elaborative Rehearsal=relating new
information to something that we already
know-more links make, more likely to
remember the new info. later
Schema-mental representations-helps us to
store and remember
Maintaining/Organizing LTM
Clustering=AUTOMATIC-tendency to
remember similar and related items in groups
or categories
Dog
pear
Apple
plumber
Zebra
florist
Diver
banana
Lion
bear
Orange
Baker
Maintaining/Organizing LTM
• Semantic Networks=our brain creates a web of
interconnected memories, each one tied to many
other memories-related to priming-one memory
leads to next
Types of Long Term Memories
ExplicitDeclarative (can
explain)
Semantic
Memories of
Facts and
Concepts
Example:
Albany is in
NY
Episodic
Memories
of personally
experienced
events
Example:
A trip to
Albany
Implicitnon-declarative (can’t
explain)
Procedural
Motor skills
and habits
Example:
Ice skating
Emotional
Learned
emotional
reactions
Example:
feeling disgust
at sight of a rat
Retrieval: Getting Information
Out of Memory
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon– a failure in
retrieval
– Retrieval cues can help, may know the first letter
Recalling an event (lunch 2 days ago)
– Context cues/context dependent memories-put
self back in the event, at the lunch table, with
friends
Reconstructing memories-memories are sketchy
reconstructions of the past-we reconstruct tails to fit
in our existing schemas
– Misinformation effect-reconstructive distortions
show up in eyewitness testimony (car accident
example)-Loftus
Retrieval: Getting Information
Out of Memory
• State-Dependent Memory-recalling
events while in the same state of
consciousness (drowsy, high) as when
encoded
• Mood-Congruent Memories-recall
happy events when happy and sad
events when sad
Forgetting: When Memory Lapses
Retention – amount of material retained-3 methods for
measuring retention in studies:
– Recall –producing info. without cues (essays)
– Recognition –selecting previously learned info.
from presented options (ex. multiple choice test)Easier than recall
– Relearning – memorize info. a second time to see
how much time is quicker
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve-1885, he
memorized nonsense syllables
He concluded most forgetting occurs rapidly after
learning (in the first hour)
Why Do We Forget?
1. Ineffective Encoding -we never really
learned: read but didn’t pay attention
2. Decay theory-memory traces fade with time
(unproven)
3. Interference theory more likely-impact of
competing, usually similar, material/
information (ex. negative/positive punishment
vs. reinforcement)
– Retroactive-new hurts old
– Proactive-old hurts new
Retrieval Failure
• Encoding Specificity Principle-can’t
retrieve because cue doesn’t match memory
code-Ex. see a person out of their
environment
• Repression -keeping distressing thoughts
buried (I forget a dentist appt. or to help
friend move)
– Authenticity of repressed memories?:
Painful memories difficult to forgrt
The Physiology of Memory
Long-term Potentiation• lasting change at the
synapses when long-term
memories are formed
• Results in better
response to stimuli in
synapses after LTP
Memory
retrograde amnesia can’t remember events
before injury
anterograde amnesia can’t remember events
after injury-50 first dates
Source amnesia
priming-activating the semantic networks verses
Framing- the way the problem/situation is
presented impacts one’s view/decision (car
accident wording)
Other Memory “Things”
•
•
•
•
•
Metamemory
Prospective memory
Next in line effect
Spacing effect
Automatic processing (TV
show)v. Effortful processing
(AP Test)
Review Chapter 7B:
Language and Thought
(2014-15)
The Hierarchical Structure of Language
• Phonemes = smallest units of sound
– (ed=d and to =tew sound)
• Morphemes = smallest unit of meaningful sound
– A and But or root words, prefixes, suffixes
• Semantics = meaning of words and word
combinations
• Syntax (grammar) = a system of rules for arranging
words into sentences
– Different rules for different languages
Language Development/Aquisition:
Milestones
Before 1 Year Pre-linguistic Events:=crying,
cooing, babbling, laughing
1 year –holophrasic stage =one word stage
– similar cross-culturally – words for parents
18-24 months –overentensions (ball for any round
object) and underextensions (use doll only to refer
to a single, favorite doll)
End of second year Telegraphic speech (“Give doll”)
End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past tense
– Overregularization or overgeneralization=rules
are incorrectly generalized (“I hitted the ball”)
Theories of Language Acquisition (how we develop language)
1. Behaviorist (Skinner) =environmental Factors (nurture):
imitation, reinforcement and conditioning
2. Nativist theory of language acquisition (or Nature
argument): Noam Chomsky
• learning the rules of language is innate as seen with
“goed,” “eated”
• Language Acquisition Device (LAD)-an innate process
that works to learn language, and lets children learn
language quickly
• Critical Period (a window of opportunity for learning or
else our development will suffer) for language acquisition
• 3. Current View combination of learning and inborn tendency
for language
More Chomsky:
Surface Structure : sound of sentence
Deep Structure : meaning of the sentence- semantics.
Understanding a sentence does from Surface to Deep
Language and Cognition
*Linguistic Relativity/Determinism
Hypothesis (Benjamin Whorf)
language we use might control and limit our
thinking. Language changes what we can
think about, depending on words in our
language
Describing Thought
Schema-mental framework -helps organize info. based
on experiences
Script- personal view on how an event will be played
out based on experience (my first day of class each
semester; a blind date)
Cognitive Map-mental representation of an
environment/ mental map (the school)
Concepts-similar to schemata/may base these
concepts on info. that shares similar features –DOG
Prototypes-the most typical example of a particular
concept-based on personal experience-POODLE
Effective Problem Solving
• Barriers to effective problem solving:
Irrelevant Information-say a math word problem
Functional Fixedness-perceive item only in terms
of its most common use
Mental Set-using only problem solving strategies
that have worked in past-thinking gets into a rut
(nine dot problem)
Approaches to Problem Solving
Heuristics=“rule of thumb” for solving problem/making
decision; shortcuts –speedier/more error prone
Algorithms=Systematic trial-and-error gives
guaranteed solution
Representativeness Heuristic-judging a situation on
how similar it is to a prototype or sample a person
has in her mind (your in college; you must drink)
rep. heuristics lead us to not consider other factors
Availability Heuristics-judging a situation based on
recent, vivid or distinctive info. that “pops into mind”not safe to go to college
Anchoring Heuristics-using information as a
reference for estimating an unknown value or
information…value may be incorrect
Example: give you a price-an anchor; you use this
price on which to base your counter offer
Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning
About Decisions
The gambler’s fallacy-belief that the odds of an event
increases if the event hasn’t occurred recentlyoverestimating the improbable
Confirmation Bias=seek info. that supports one’s
decisions/beliefs while ignoring disconfirming info.
Overconfidence in our beliefs results in:
Belief perseverance=we maintain a belief even after
the evidence we used to form the belief is
contradicted-EX: on a high protein diet, read that low
cal diet better, high protein diet remains
Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning
About Decisions
• The overconfidence effect=due to intuitioneager to confirm beliefs and we explain away
failures (I know he is a jerk, even though he
was nice)
• Framing=the way an issue is presented
affects decisions and judgments (72% passes
or 32 % failed
More on Reasoning
• deductive reasoning=from a general assumption to
particulars. All my teachers hate me; Mrs. Merlino
must hate me
• Inductive reasoning=going from particular facts or
observations to a general conclusion Mrs. Merlino
“hates” me; so, all teachers hate me
Creativity (not correlated with intelligence) is
associated with being original/novel and using
divergent thinking (searching for multiple answers)
rather than convergent thinking (thinking pointed
towards one solution)