Transcript 1- KLİMATİK FAKTOR (İKLİM)

Soil Profile
 Sequence
of layers
within the
uppermost
part of
Earth
Figure 16.2
Soil Horizons
O: organic (black)
 A: Mineral (dark)
 E: Leached (pale)
 B: Accumulation

White (lime)
 Red (iron, clay)

C: Little-altered
 R: Unweathered

Soil Profile
In a cross-section
of soil, various
zones are
formed.
O Horizon: Organic Layer
It consists of leaf
litter and other
organic material
lying on the
surface of the
soil.
A Horizon: Topsoil
This layer is
usually loose
and crumbly with
varying amounts
of organic
matter.
A Horizon: Topsoil
This is generally
the most
productive layer
of the soil.
Conservation
efforts are
focused here!
B Horizon: Subsoils
Subsoils are
usually lighter in
color, dense and
low in organic
matter.
C Horizon: Transition
This layer of
transition is almost
completely void of
organic mater and
is made up of
partially weathered
parent material.
Bedrock
Below the C
horizon the
unweathered
bedrock will be
found.
TOPRAKLARIN
SINIFLANDIRILMASI

ZONAL TOPRAKLAR: Bir bölgede hüküm süren
İklim ve Bitki Örtüsü şartlarına göre oluşmuş
topraklardır. A-B-C Horizonlarından oluşurlar.

İNTRAZONAL TOPRAKLAR: Bu toprakların
oluşumunda Yerşekilleri ve Anakaya faktörleri
etkilidir. A-C Horizonlarından oluşurlar.

AZONAL TOPRAKLAR: Dış kuvvetler tarafından
Taşınarak
biriktirilen
topraklardır.
Horizonu
olmayan çok verimli topraklardır.
TOPRAK TİPLERİ
ZONAL TOPRAKLAR
İNTRAZONAL
TOPRAKLAR
AZONAL TOPRAKLAR
Lateritler
Halomorfik Topraklar
Alüvyal Topraklar
Kırmızı Topraklar
Hidromorfik Topraklar
Lösler
Kahverengi Orman T.
Kalsimorfik Topraklar
Morenler
Podzol Topraklar
Kolüvyal Topraklar
Tundra Toprakları
a) Vertisoller
Litosoller
Çöl Toprakları
b) Rendzinalar
Regosoller
Kahverengi - Kestane
Renkli Bozkır T.
Çernezyomlar
ZONAL TOPRAKLAR
LATERİTLER:
arasındaki sıcak-nemli iklim
bölgesinin topraklarıdır.
Kiremit kırmızısı bir renge sahiptir.
Bitki örtüsü gür olmasına rağmen humus
bakımından fakirdir (Mikroorganizmalar çok
fazla olduğu için)
Aşırı yıkanmış topraklardır.
Verimsiz topraktır.
Dönenceler
LATERİT
KIRMIZI TOPRAKLAR (Terra Rossa):
Akdeniz iklim bölgesinde Kalkerler üzerinde oluşan
topraklardır. Demir oksitten dolayı rengi kırmızıdır.
KAHVERENGİ ORMAN TOPRAKLARI:

Nemli orta kuşağın yayvan yapraklı orman
alanlarında oluşurlar. Humus bakımından
zengindir.
PODZOL (Külrengi) TOPRAKLAR
Soğuk-nemli
bölgelerin iğne
yapraklı orman
sahalarında oluşan
topraklardır.
 Yıkanma fazla
olduğundan besin
maddeleri
bakımından
fakirdir.

TUNDRA TOPRAKLARI
Tundra (Kutup altı)
iklim bölgesinin
topraklarıdır.
 Kışın donmuş olan
toprak, yazın
çözülerek bataklık
halini alır.
 Tarıma elverişli
değildir.

ÇÖL TOPRAKLARI:


Yağış azlığı ve
şiddetli
buharlaşma
nedeniyle kireç,
toprak yüzeyinde
birikerek sert bir
kabuk
oluşturmuştur
Humus
bakımından çok
fakirdir.
KAHVERENGİ VE KESTANE RENKLİ
BOZKIR TOPRAKLARI

Orta kuşağın Bozkır alanlarında oluşan
topraklardır.

Besin maddeleri bakımından zengindir.

Yağış azlığından dolayı kireç, A
horizonunun alt kesimlerinde birikmiştir.
Kestane Renkli
Bozkır Toprağı
ÇERNEZYOM (KARA) TOPRAKLAR:
Karasal iklimin yarı
nemli sahalarında,
çayır bitki örtüsü
altında oluşan
topraklardır.
 En verimli zonal
topraktır.
 Örnek: ErzurumKars Platosu.

İNTRAZONAL TOPRAKLAR
A. Halomorfik Topraklar: Kurak ve yarı
kurak bölgelerde,suyla eriyik halde bulunan
karbonat ve tuzun, suyun buharlaşmasıyla
toprağın yüzeyinde birikmesiyle oluşurlar.
Bunlar; Tuzlu Topraklar ve Tuzlu-Sodik
topraklar olmak üzere iki gruba ayrılırlar.
B. Hidromorfik Topraklar: Bataklık alanlarda
yada taban suyu seviyesinin yüksek olduğu
sahalarda oluşurlar.
C. Kalsimorfik Topraklar: Yumuşak kalker
ve Marn ( killi kireç taşı) üzerinde oluşan
topraklardır. Kireç yönünden zengindir.
KALSİMORFİKLER
a)
Vertisoller: Eski göl tabanlarındaki killi
ve kireçli depolar üzerinde oluşmuştur.



Kurak mevsimde çatlar.
Çatlaklara üst kısımlardan toprak dökülür.
Yağışlı mevsimde toprak suyla doygun
hale geldiği için şişerek çatlaklardan
dökülen toprakları yukarı iter.
b) Rendzinalar: Yumuşak kireçtaşları üzerinde
oluşan bu topraklar, genellikle koyu renkli olup alt
kısmında kireç birikimi olur.
RENDZİNA
VERTİSOL
AZONAL (Taşınmış) TOPRAKLAR
ALÜVYAL TOPRAKLAR: Akarsuların taşıyıp
biriktirdikleri malzemelerden oluşan çok
verimli topraklardır.
LÖS: Rüzgarların taşıyıp biriktirdiği toz
büyüklüğündeki
parçacıklardan
oluşan
topraklardır.
REGOSOL
Volkanlardan çıkan kum boyutundaki malzeme,
Akarsuların biriktirdiği depolar, ya da; yamaç
eteklerindeki kumlu kolüvyal depolar
üzerinde
oluşan topraklardır.
KOLÜVYAL TOPRAKLAR:
Dağlık sahalarda eğimli yamaçlar boyunca
ufalanan malzemelerin dağların eteklerinde
birikmesi ile oluşurlar.
LİTOSOLLER: Dağ yamaçlarında, ince malzemeler
yağmur
sularıyla
sürekli
taşındığından
iri
malzemeler kalır. Böylece yamaçlarda taşlı
topraklar (Litosoller) oluşur.
MOREN: Buzulların
taşıyıp biriktirdiği
malzemelerden oluşan topraklardır.
İKLİM ÖZELLİĞİ
BİTKİ ÖRTÜSÜ
TOPRAK TİPİ
Ekvatoral İklim
Ekvatoral Orman
LATERİT
Akdeniz İklimi
Maki
TERRA ROSSA
Nemli -Serin
İğne Yapraklı Orman
PODZOL
Tundra İklimi
Tundra Bitkileri
TUNDRA TOPRAĞI
Karasal – Yarı Kurak Bozkır ( Step )
KAHVERENGİ T.
Okyanus İklimi
Yayvan Yapraklı Or.
KAHVERENGİ OR. T.
Çöl İklimi
Çöl Bitkileri
ÇÖL TOPRAĞI
Karasal – Yarı nemli
Çayır
ÇERNEZYOM
TOPRAĞIN
ÖZELLİĞİ
TOPRAK TİPİ
Akarsuların taşıyıp biriktirdiği
1
malzemelerden oluşan topraklar.
ALÜVYAL
Rüzgarların taşıyıp biriktirdiği
2
malzemelerden oluşan topraklar.
LÖS
Bünyesinde en fazla tuz bulduran
3
topraklar.
HALOMORFİK
Selinti suların taşıyıp dağ eteklerinde
4
biriktirdiği topraklar.
KOALÜVYAL
Erozyona uğrayan yamaçlarda oluşan
5
taşlı topraklar.
LİTOSOL
Kum boyutundaki volkanik malzeme ve
akarsuların biriktirdiği kumlu depolar
6
üzerinde oluşan topraklar.
REGASOL
Drenajın iyi olmadığı alanlarda oluşan
7
topraklar.
HİDROMORFİK
TOPRAĞIN
ÖZELLİĞİ
TOPRAK TİPİ
8
Yumuşak kireç taşları ve killi depolar
üzerinde oluşan topraklar.
KALSİMORFİK
9
Humus bakımından fakir olan sıcak - nemli
bölge toprakları.
LATERİT
Bünyesinde demir oksit oranı fazla olan
10
kırmızı renkli topraklar.
TERRA ROSSA
Kışın donup yazın ayrışarak bataklık halini
11
alan topraklar.
TUNDRA
Karasal iklim bölgelerinde çayır bitki örtüsü
12
altında oluşan verimli topraklar
ÇERNEZYOM
İğne yapraklı orman sahalarında görülen
13
topraklar.
PODZOL
DİĞER TOPRAK SINIFLAMASI

Gelisols - yüzeyden itibaren 2 m mesafede olan donmuş
topraklar

Histosols – organik topraklar

Spodosols - Metal-humus komplekslerinin bir yüzey altı

Andisols – volkanik küllerden oluşan topraklar


birikimi olan asit orman toprakları
Oxisols - tropikal ve subtropikal ortamlarda yoğun
ayrışmış topraklar
Vertisols - yüksek büzülme / şişme kapasiteli killi topraklar
DİĞER TOPRAK SINIFLAMASI

Aridisols - CaCO3 içeren kıraç topraklar

Ultisols - kil birikimli yüzey altı zonu ve % 35'ten az baz

Mollisols - yüksek baz seviyeli çayır toprakları

Alfisols - kil birikimli yüzey altı zonu ve % 35'ten az baz

Inceptisols - yüzeyaltı sahiabaklarda zayıf gelişmiş
doygunluğa sahip güçlü derecede yıkanmış topraklar
doygunluğa sahip orta derece yıkanmış topraklar
topraklar

Entisols - az veya hiç morfolojik gelişim göstermemiş
topraklar
SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Color
 Texture
 Structure
 Bulk Density

Soil Color
Munsell color system - A color designation system
that specifies three variables of color.
hue (a specific color), indicating a soils relation to
red, yellow, green, blue, or purple. Most soils are in
the red and yellow hues. On the Munsell Chart-Within each color range (R, YR, Y) the color
becomes more yellow and less red as the numbers
increase.
value (lightness and darkness). On a neutral gray
scale, value extends from pure black to pure white;
one of the three variables of color. On the Munsell
Chart--value, found on the vertical axis, extends from
0 for absolute black to 10 for absolute white.
Soil Color
chroma (color intensity) - directly related to the
dominance of the determining wavelength of the
light and inversely related to grayness; On the
Munsell Chart-- chroma, found on the horizontal
axis, extending from neutral grays.
The order for writing a Munsell notation is hue,
value, and chroma with a space between the hue
letter and the two numbers. A "/" appears between
value and chroma.
Example: 10YR 5/6
Mineral
Formula
Size
Munsell
Color
goethite
FeOOH
(1-2 m m)
10YR 8/6
yellow
goethite
FeOOH
(~0.2 m m)
7.5YR 5/6
strong brown
hematite
Fe2O3
(~0.4 m m)
5R 3/6
red
hematite
Fe2O3
(~0.1 m m)
10R 4/8
red
lepidocrocite
FeOOH
(~0.5 m m)
5YR 6/8
reddish-yellow
lepidocrocite
FeOOH
(~0.1 m m)
2.5YR 4/6
red
ferrihydrite
Fe (OH)3
2.5YR 3/6
dark red
glauconite
K(SixAl4x)(Al,Fe,Mg)O10(OH)2
5Y 5/1
dark gray
iron sulfide
FeS
10YR 2/1
black
pyrite
FeS2
10YR 2/1
black (metallic)
jarosite
K Fe3 (OH)6 (SO4)2
5Y 6/4
pale yellow
todorokite
MnO4
10YR 2/1
black
10YR 2/1
black
Properties of Minerals
humus
calcite
CaCO3
10YR 8/2
white
dolomite
CaMg (CO3)2
10YR 8/2
white
gypsum
CaSO4× 2H2O
10YR 8/3
very pale
brown
quartz
SiO2
10YR 6/1
light gray
Tale 15.1
Soil structure
Building and maintaining a good structure
depends on
 The influence of organic matter
 The shrink swell processes associated
with wetting and drying or freezing and
thawing
 The action of plant roots and soil
microorganisms
 The modifying effects of adsorbed cations
Granular:
Resembles cookie
crumbs and is
usually less than
0.5 cm in diameter.
Commonly found in
surface horizons
where roots have
been growing.
Blocky: Irregular blocks
that are usually 1.5 - 5.0 cm
in diameter
Columnar: Vertical columns of soil that
have a salt "cap" at the top. Found in
soils of arid climates.
Prismatic: Vertical columns of
soil that might be a number of
cm long. Usually found in lower
horizons.
Platy: Thin, flat plates of soil that lie horizontally.
Usually found in compacted soil.
Massive: Soil has no visible structure,
is hard to break apart and appears
in very large clods.
Single Grained: Soil is broken into
individual particles that do not stick
together. Always accompanies a loose
consistence. Commonly found in sandy
soils
GRANULAR
Prismatic
Blocky
Platy
Columnar
Single grained
Massive
Bulk Density
Bulk Density is the weight of a given volume
of soil which includes the pore spaces. It can
be easily measured by gently pressing a small
cylinder into the soil, removing the core and
weighing after\drying to remove the water
contained in the pore space.
An average value would be 1.3 g per cm3.
Coarse textured soils will usually have a
higher bulk density because they have less
pore space than fine textured soils.
Bulk Density
Bulk density is an important property of
soils since it affects how easily plant
roots can penetrate the soil when they
propagate.
Real Density is the weight of a given
volume of the soil solids only. It would
be equivalent to the average density of
the soil minerals and the organic
matter. An average value is 2.65 g per
cm3.
Bulk Density
Porosity or pore space of soils is calculated
simply from the Bulk Density (Db) and Real or
Particle density (Dp)
Porosity = 1 - Db/Dp
An example of a soil that has a Real Density
of 2.65 g per cm3 and a Bulk Density of 1.3 g
per cm3 and converting to percentages.
% Porosity = 100 - (1.3/2.65) x 100 = 50%
Ion Exchange in Soils
As a result of negative charges developed
by soil colloids ions are absorbed on the
surfaces of these colloids in soils. The ions
absorbed are include Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Al3+,
and Na+.
In humid regions Ca2+, Al3+ and H+ are by far
the most numerous cations absorbed. Al3+
and H+ tend to dominate in humid regions. In
semi-arid regions Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and Na+
tend to dominate.
Sources Negative Charge:
The main source of charge on clay minerals
is isomorphous substitution which confers
permanent charge on the surface of most
layer silicates.
Ionization of hydroxyl groups on the surface
of other soil colloids and organic matter can
result in what is describes as pH dependent
charges-mainly due to the dependent on the
pH of the soil environment.
Sources Negative Charge:
Unlike permanent charges developed by
isomorphous substitution, pH-dependent
charges are variable and increase with
increasing pH.
Presence of surface and broken - edge -OH
groups gives the kaolinite clay particles their
electronegativity and their capacity to absorb
cations. In most soils there is a combination
of constant and variable charge
Cation Exchange
Displacement of one cation by another
results in the process called cation
exchange. For example: H+ produced by
organic acid.
Under high rainfall conditions, Ca leached.
Under low rainfall conditions, Ca and other
soils are not easily leached.
Factors Affecting Cation Exchange
The charge of the ion. Generally ions with
higher valency will exchange for those of
lower valency.
For example;
Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ = NH4+ >Na+
For ions of same charge, the cation with the
smallest hydrated radius is strongly absorbed
because it moves close to the site of charge.
Factors Affecting Cation Exchange
For examples K with a hydrated radius of
0.532 nm, will exchange for Na, hydration
radius of 0.790 nm, on the exchange sites.
The rate of ion exchange in soils is affected
by the type and quantity of organic and
inorganic colloids.
Clay minerals with 1:1 lattice tend to have
more rapid rate of exchange than 2:1 clays
which have both internal and external
exchange sites.
Cation Exchange Capacity of Soil
Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is defined
as the quantity of cations that are reversibly
adsorbed per unit mass of the (dry) matter.
Moles of positive charge / dry weight of soil
For clay CEC = 1-150 centimoles (cmol)/kg
For peat CEC ~400 cmol/kg
Cation Exchange Capacity
The cation exchange capacity of soils
(CEC) is defined as the sum of positive
(+) charges of the adsorbed cations
that a soil can adsorb at a specific pH.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is
expressed as centimoles of positive
charge per kilogram (cmol kg-1) , of
oven dry soil.
Cation Exchange Capacity
Earlier unit was meq per 100 g soils.
Equivalent weight: Quantity that is chemically
equal to 1 gram of H.
Number of H in equivalent weight is 6.02x1023
or Avogadro's number. Milli equivalent is equal
to 0.001 gr.mol of H.
Total cation exchange capacity of the soil is
the total number of exchange sites of both the
organic and mineral colloids.
Cation Exchange
Capacities of Clay Minerals
Colloid Type
CEC (cmol Kg-1)
Kaolinite
2-15
Montmorillonite
80-150
Chlorite
10-40
Vermiculite (Trioctahedral)
100-200
Vermiculite (Dioctahedral)
10-150
Allophane
3-250
Gibbsite
4
Goethite
4
Cation Exchange Capacities of Soil
The CEC of a given soil is determined by the relative amounts of different
colloids in that soil and by the CEC of each of these colloids. Sandy soils
generally have lower CEC than clay soil because coarse textured soils have
lower amounts of both clays and organic matter.
Soils Order
CECs (cmol kg-1)
pH
Ultisols
3.5
5.6
Alfisols
9.0
6.0
Spodosols
9.3
4.93
Mollisols
18.7
6.51
Vertisols
35.6
6.72
Aridisols
15.2
7.26
Inceptisols
14.6
6.08
Entisols
11.6
7.32
Histosols
128.0
5.50
CATION EXCHANGE
CAPACITY OF SOIL
Importance of Cation Exchange
Cation exchange at negative sites is major
retention mechanism for heavy metals, e.g. Cd, Pb
and Zn.
Measurement of CEC
The CEC of soil is usually measured by saturating
the soil with an index cation such as Na+, removal
of the excess salts of the index cation with a dilute
solution , and then displacing the Na+ with another
cation . The amount of Na+ displaced is then
measured and the CEC is calculated.
Anion Exchange and Adsorption
Anion exchange arise from the protonation of
hydroxyl groups on the edges of silicate clays and
on the surfaces of metal oxide clays. Anion
exchange is inversely related with pH is greatest in
soils dominated by the sesquioxides (Al2O3 etc.).
The anions Cl-, NO3-, and SeO42- and to some
extent HS- ands SO42-, HCO3-, and CO3- adsorb
mainly by ion exchange. Borate, phosphate and
carboxylate adsorb principally by specific
adsorption mechanisms.
POROSITY OF SOIL
Texture, structure and organic matter are all
important in determining the overall soil porosity.
Coarse textured sandy soils have larger pores but
much less pore space than finer textured clay soils.
Soil Texture, Bulk Density and Porosity
Texture
Bulk Density
% Porosity
Sand
1.6
40
Loam
1.2
55
Clay
1.05
60
Engineering Properties of Soils



Erodibility:
The
ease with which soil
is removed by wind
or water
Hydraulic
conductivity: The
ease of soil to allow
water
to
move
through
Corrosion
potential: Chemical
interaction
with
metals
Engineering Properties of Soils (2)

Shrink-swell
potential:
Soil’s tendency to gain
or lose water
 Expansive soils: Causing
significant environmental
problems
 Changes
in moisture
content
 Topography and drainage
also significant